In what ways did the railways of the subcontinent alter the Essay

In what ways did the railways of the subcontinent alter the relationship of Indians to their surroundings - Essay Example 13). The pressure for building railways in India came from London in 1840’s. The reason for that was so the economies of the two countries would be intermeshed. The Indian Railway Association was formed by Sir Jamsetjee Jejeebhoy and Hon. Jaganath Shunkerseth in 1845. The Association was eventually incorporated into the Great Indian Peninsula Railway and the two formers became the only two Indians among the ten directors. The first train journey in India was between Bombay and Thane on the 16th of April in 1853 (Rothermund, H.U. 1993, p. 28). Shankarseth participated in this journey which involved a fourteen carriage long train drawn by three locomotives. The locomotives were known as Sultan, Sindh and Sahib. The train was around twenty one miles in length and took forty five minutes approximately. A century after the introduction of railway lines in India, basic policies and ultimate management of the Indian Railways came from London. Every decision made had to come from London. This means that the British had a huge role in the ways the railways of the subcontinent affected the Indians and their surroundings. These effects were seen in the military front, economically and also politically (Crowley, H.U. 2011, p. 21). Robert Maitland Brereton was the British engineer responsible for the expansion of the railways from 1857. By 1864, the Calcutta-Allahabad-Delhi line was completed and the Allahabad-Jabalpur branch line opened in June 1867. These two were linked with the Great Indian Peninsula Railway courtesy of Brereton. This resulted in a combined network of six thousand four hundred kilometres making it possible to travel from Bombay to Calcutta directly via Allahabad. On 7th March 1870 this route was officially opened (Narayanan, H.U. 2011, p. 23). The opening of this route was part of the inspiration for French writer Jules Veme’s book Around the World in Eighty Days. The official opening ceremony was graced by the Viceroy Lord Mayo who concluded

Are shcwann cells useful for repairing spinal cord injuries Research Paper

Are shcwann cells useful for repairing spinal cord injuries - Research Paper Example The best cells for bridge-building are Schwann cells, because they are easy to get from patients and because they support perfect axon regeneration (Oudega & Xu, 2006). The only problem is that Schwann cells will not mix with the connective tissue cells of the spinal cord, so the bridges will not integrate with the spinal cord. Studies are underway on how to Schwann cells interact with connective tisues cells of the spinal cord and how to get them integrate. Schwann cells are also the cells in peripheral nerves that form myelin sheaths. They are not usually found in the brain or spinal cord where another neurological cell, the ogliodendrocyte, is responsible for making myelin. Researchers have shown that Schwann cells grafted into the brain can myelinate central axons (Oudega & Xu, 2006). When the loss of myelin is an important part of injury, implanting Schwann cells could stimulate remyelination and thereby restore function. Schwann cells, nerve cells and some other cells make proteins known to nourish nerve cells called "growth factors". By introducing these factors into injury sites alone or in combination with grafts, researchers hope to stimulate additional nerve regeneration and promote the health of nerve cells. This approach has been shown to stimulate CNS regeneration, including growth of axons from nerve cells within the spinal cord and those from the brain that send their long axons down the spinal cord. Significant restoration of function has not yet been achieved. Also Pieces of Engineered Neural Tissue (EngNT) are formed by controlling natural Schwann cell behavior in a three-dimensional collagen gel so that the cells elongate and align, and then a stabilization process removes excess fluid to leave robust artificial tissues. These living biomaterials contain aligned Schwann cells in an aligned collagen environment, recreating key features of normal nerve tissue. Incorrect

Female Genital Mutilation in Egypt Essay Example for Free

Female Genital Mutilation in Egypt Essay Female Genital Mutilation (FGM) is a socio-religious practice that is very prevalent in Africa, Asia and the Middle East. It entails the partial or total removal of the female external genitalia for cultural or any other non-therapeutic purpose. As of 1999, at least 130 million girls and women were believed to have undergone FGM. In the same year, it was estimated that about 2 million girls are at risk of being subjected to some form of the procedure every year (WHO 3). FGM is criticized mainly for its detrimental effects on a woman’s physical and psychological health. Girls and women who had been subjected to FGM may die of hemorrhage, shock, urinary tract infections or tetanus (WHO 21). They may likewise experience psychological disorders such as severe depression, anxiety and psychosomatic illnesses (Markle, Fisher and Smego 79). Advocates of FGM, however, claim that Islam requires the practice in order to preserve a woman’s chastity (WHO 6). The actual origins of FGM are very obscure – ethnologists and historians have come up with different theories regarding the existence of the practice. While FGM is commonly associated with Islam, historical evidence shows that the former has predated the latter by at least 1,200 years. The procedure was believed to have been first discussed by the Greek historian Herodotus (484 – 425 BC) (Bullough and Bullough 205). According to his writings, the Ethiopians, the Hittites and the Phoenicians during the 5th century BC were already practicing FGM (UNFPA n. pag. ). The early Romans, the Egyptians and the Arabs likewise performed FGM – there are historical accounts of Egyptian mummies exhibited signs of having undergone the procedure (UNFPA n. pag. ). For the ancient Egyptians, FGM was regarded as a sign of distinction among the aristocracy (Momoh 5). In Western Europe and the United States, FGM was known as clitoridectomy. Until the 1950s, doctors in these regions used clitoridectomy to treat â€Å"ailments† in women such as hysteria, mental disorders, nymphomania, masturbation and lesbianism (UNFPA n. pag. ). FGM is usually done on girls between 8 to 10 years old. Reproductive health experts, however, point out that the procedure is already being carried out on younger girls – there have been cases wherein infant girls were subjected to FGM just a few days after their birth (WHO 147). FGM is classified into four general types: a. Type I – Excision of the prepuce, with or without excision of part or the entire clitoris. b. Type II – Excision of the clitoris with partial or total excision of the labia minora. c. Type III – Excision of part or the entire external genitalia and the stitching or narrowing of the vaginal opening (infibulation) (Momoh 6). d. Type IV – Pricking, piercing or incising of the clitoris and or the labia; scraping of tissue surrounding the vaginal orifice; cutting of the vagina and or the introduction of corrosive substances or herbs into the vagina to induce bleeding or to tighten the opening (UNFPA n. pag. ). FGM is usually performed by traditional midwifes or village barbers. They use unsterilized instruments such as razor blades, knives, broken glass, scissors or sharpened stones. Furthermore, they conduct procedures without anesthetic in unhygienic settings (WHO, 148). A new phenomenon, however, has emerged in the recent years – the â€Å"medicalization† of FGM. Despite laws banning the practice of FGM, hospitals in Egypt, Kenya and Sudan now clandestinely perform the procedure. Under the pretext of an illness, female teenagers in these countries are circumcised in the hospital either early in the morning or late at night. The procedure is done during these hours in order to evade detection and arrest. The punishment for performing FGM is relatively stiff – a $625 fine or incarceration for up to a year. But doctors willingly look the other way for the money – medical practitioners in Kenya, for instance, are paid between $37 and $125 for every procedure they perform. Traditional practitioners, in sharp contrast, could charge only as much as $25 (Nzwili n. pag. ). Egypt’s current problem with FGM can be traced back to the International Conference on Population and Development (ICPD) in 1994. The ICPD was held in Cairo – supposedly a turning point in the understanding of health, development and women’s rights in the Islamic world. Critics, however, pointed out that the Cairo Program of Action merely â€Å"forwarded a holistic vision of the connections between sexual ad reproductive health and women’s economic autonomy, social and political equality, access to education and freedom from violence† (Chavkin and Chesler 35). The issues regarding the right of women to control their sexuality and the relevance of this right to achieving health and social justice were inadequately discussed (Chavkin and Chesler 35). Despite this shortcoming, the ICPD managed to transform the issue of FGM from a relatively low-profile subject into matter of national debate. Conservative religious leaders who participated in the conference and their allies in the Egyptian press expressed their approval of FGM by claiming that it is an important part of national and religious identity. Progressive women’s groups, on the other hand, argued that the practice perpetuated the inferior status of women in Egyptian society. In the process, this dispute on FGM showed that the topic of women’s rights is simply a means for Egyptian politicians to attain popularity among the electorate (Chavkin and Chesler 35). Eager to make a good impression on all the foreign delegates of the ICPD, particularly on those from the West, the Egyptian minister of health stated that FGM was already a dying practice in Egypt. But on the very next day, CNN reported about the circumcision of a young girl that took place somewhere in Cairo (Chavkin and Chesler 35). The minister, in an act of political face-saving, declared that the Egyptian government was determined to confront and put an end to the practice. In order to appease Egypt’s conservative sector, meanwhile, he signed an ambivalent decree which allowed only public medical facilities to perform FGM. The law even included provisions which set standard fees and special days when families could book appointments (Chavkin and Chesler 36). The aforementioned aftermath of the ICPD showed the greatest obstacle towards fully implementing anti-FGM policies and programs not just in Egypt but in all other countries that practice FGM – the reconciliation of universal imperatives of human rights with the values of local cultures. The same dilemma also hounded other FGM-related fatalities, particularly the death of four-year-old Egyptian girl Amira Hassan. She died in 1996 due to anesthesia-related complications while undergoing FGM. Instead of pressing charges against the doctor, Ezzat Shehat, Hassan’s parents simply dismissed her demise as â€Å"a will of God† (HURINet n. pag. ). They believed that subjecting their daughter to FGM was their duty as good Muslims (HURINet n. pag. ). Most Egyptians continue to believe in the said relationship between FGM and Islam. A 2005 UNICEF report on the practice revealed that about 97% of women between 15 and 49 years old were subjected to circumcision (Reuters-AlertNet n. pag. ). Despite a 2008 law which renders FGM punishable by three months to two years in prison and a fine of LE 1,000 to LE 5,000, the practice continues to be secretly carried out in Egypt. According to the country’s conservative and religious groups, FGM is necessary to maintain a woman’s chastity (Samaan n. pag. ). Indeed, cultural and religious beliefs are also major factors behind the issue of FGM in Egypt. The practice has already existed long before the advent of Islam. And for a good reason – patriarchy was already in existence even before the emergence of religion. For a patriarchal society to survive, female sexuality must be limited and controlled (Turshen 146). FGM is regarded as one of the most effective means of controlling a woman’s sexuality. The clitoris, the labia minora and the labia majora – the organs removed in FGM – enable a woman to enjoy sexual intercourse. In a patriarchal society, women are not supposed to experience the pleasures of sex. They are supposed to be sexless beings, faithfully serving their respective families and engaging in sex only for the purpose of procreation. Women who do otherwise are considered promiscuous (Turshen 146). It is therefore believed that circumcised women are less likely to be unchaste and commit adultery. In addition, FGM is viewed as a means of emphasizing femininity. When a woman is circumcised, the parts of her body that are metaphorically seen as male, such as the pubic hair and the clitoris, are removed. During ancient times, it was believed that the clitoris â€Å"would grow and protrude like the (penis)† (Turshen 150). Men, on the other hand, undergo circumcision in order to enhance their sexuality. Male circumcision entails the cutting of the foreskin of the penis. A circumcised penis is believed to be more responsive to sexual arousal than an uncircumcised one; thus the ancient belief that circumcision is necessary for virility. Furthermore, a circumcised penis is easier to keep clean. Circumcision eliminates the formation of smegma, a combination of oil, moisture and dead skin cells which serves as a lubricant during sexual intercourse (Turshen 146). Islam does not directly state that all Muslims must be circumcised regardless of gender. However, much of the existing Islamic literature today emphasizes a special link between Islam and FGM (Turshen 151). The most well-known hadith (oral traditions that record the Prophet Muhammad’s speech and actions) about FGM tells of a debate between Muhammad and Um Atiyyah, a woman who used to circumcise female slaves. Muhammad was said to have asked Um Atiyyah if she continued to practice her profession (Denniston, Hodges and Milos 148). She said she did, adding that she would not stop doing so â€Å"unless it is forbidden and you order me to stop doing it† (Denniston, Hodges and Milos 148). He then replied, â€Å"Yes, it is allowed. Come closer so I can teach you: if you cut, do not overdo it (la tanhiki), because it brings more radiance to the face (ashraq) and it is more pleasant (ahza) for the husband† (Denniston, Hodges and Milos 148). Since the first centuries of Islam, however, Muslim scholars have been scrutinizing the authenticity of the hadiths. They believe that majority of the hadiths were â€Å"contradictory and (contained) affirmations that gave a bad impression of the Islamic religion† (Denniston, Hodges and Milos 148). In lieu of the hadiths, Muslim scholars came up with their own explanations behind the association of FGM with Islam. The first theory was that FGM was a means of saving women from the degradation that they experienced in the pre-Islamic era. For the Muslims, the pre-Islamic era was the â€Å"Age of Ignorance† – a period of corruption, bloodshed, moral turpitude and social chaos (Akhtar 23). Women in the pre-Islamic era had few rights. The practice of burying infant females in the sand was very rampant. Those who managed to live to adulthood, meanwhile, had no other means of survival except through prostitution (Akhtar 23). It has been mentioned earlier that the organs removed in FGM – the clitoris, the labia minora and the labia majora – enable a woman to enjoy sexual intercourse. By removing these organs, therefore, it was expected that women would no longer take pleasure in sexual intercourse and abandon prostitution in the process. The second theory is that some Islamic societies might have acquired the practice of FGM from other cultures or religions. During Muhammad’s time, the Jews were considered as the elite of Arab society. Consequently, it became inevitable that Islam was influenced by Jewish doctrines and practices such as circumcision (Denniston, Hodges and Milos 148). But this begs the question of how come even Muslim females are circumcised – the Jews circumcise only males. The answer is that Islam might have tailored certain Jewish doctrines and practices to suit its own objectives. One of the objectives of Islam was to uplift the status of women (Akhtar 23). In order to achieve this goal, Islam put its own flavor to the Jewish practice of circumcision. As a result, even Muslim women were required to undergo circumcision. Despite varying explanations regarding the origins and purposes of FGM, one thing is certain – it is not without detrimental physical and psychological effects. The most immediate negative effects of FGM are severe pain and hemorrhage, which, in turn, can result in hypovolaemic shock and death. Other direct effects include abscesses, wound contamination and local infections – obvious results of performing the procedure in unhygienic surroundings using unsterilized tools (WHO 149). FGM also has substantial long-term risks. The practice usually obstructs the drainage of urine, vaginal secretions and menstrual blood. This occurrence, in turn, results in chronic pelvic infections, menstrual dysfunction and menstrual pain. Urinary retention, meanwhile, leads to chronic urinary tract infection and renal damage. When menstrual blood is unable to flow out of the body, abdominal pain and swelling ensue (WHO 149). The abdominal distention that circumcised women experience due to the lack of menstrual flow has been misinterpreted as a pregnancy. As a result, some circumcised but unmarried women have been subjected to honor killings – killed by their male relatives in order to preserve the honor of their clan. FGM also exposes a woman to the risk of contracting HIV. Unsterilized instruments may transmit HIV-infected blood into an HIV-negative patient (WHO 149). Women who underwent FGM may also experience difficulties in sexual intercourse after the procedure. Penetration may either be painful or impossible due to a narrow introitus. Prolonged postcoital bleeding and anorgasmia may likewise take place. In some cases, surgery was necessary to open up the vagina for penetration (WHO 150). FGM may render a woman infertile. Chronic pelvic infections often lead to the obstruction of the fallopian tubes. The latter is one of the most common causes of ectopic pregnancy, which can lead to the death of both the mother and the baby. Narrowing of the introitus, meanwhile, may force a couple to use the anus or the urethra for sexual intercourse. Fluctuating hormones during pregnancy put circumcised women at more risk for genital and urinary tract infections than their uncircumcised counterparts (WHO 150). The most common psychological disorders among circumcised women are depression and anxiety – they have to conform to parental and societal expectations while dealing with pain, complicated recovery and other long-term health effects. Painful sexual intercourse may result in them having immensely traumatic memories of their wedding night. Circumcised women also have to live each day in fear – they constantly view each cyst that grows in them as a possible symptom of cancer or other serious ailment (WHO 152). When the physical pain becomes too much for them to endure, they might resort to suicide. Female genital mutilation is one of the worst forms of violence that can be inflicted on a woman. In an effort to tie her to the home, she is horribly mutilated and made to live in constant pain for the rest of her life. A circumcised woman is also made to live in fear. She is constantly warned by society that to avoid circumcision is to face ostracism and even condemnation. Much still has to be done before FGM will finally be abolished. But the first step remains to be education. Societies must be made aware of the importance of educating girls. Numerous studies have already proven that girls who have attained basic education are healthier and are less likely to die in childbirth than those who did not. When the members of a particular society – both male and female – are healthy, this society becomes productive. Works Cited Akhtar, Shabbir. The Quran and the Secular Mind: A Philosophy of Islam. New York: Routledge, 2007. Bullough, Vern L. , and Bonnie Bullough. Human Sexuality: An Encyclopedia. New York: Taylor and Francis, 1994. Chavkin, Wendy, and Ellen Chesler. Where Human Rights Begin: Health, Sexuality and Women in the New Millennium. Chapel Hill: Rutgers University Press, 2005. Denniston, George C. , Frederick Mansfield Hodges and Marilyn Fayre Milos. Male and Female Circumcision: Medical, Legal and Ethical Considerations in Pediatric Practice. New York: Springer, 1999. â€Å"Egyptians Stand by Female Circumcision. † 10 December 1996. The Human Rights Information Network (HURINet). 27 February 2009 http://www. hartford-hwp. com/archives/32/018. html. â€Å"Egypt Mufti Says Female Circumcision Forbidden. † 24 June 2007. Reuters-AlertNet. 27 February 2009 http://www. alertnet. org/thenews/newsdesk/L24694871. htm. Markle, William H. , Melanie A. Fisher and Raymond A. Smego. Understanding Global Health. New York: McGraw-Hill Professional, 2007. Momoh, Comfort. Female Genital Mutilation. Abingdon: Radcliffe Publishing, 2005. Nzwili, Fredrick. â€Å"In Africa, FGM Checks into Hospitals. † 5 December 2004. Women’s ENews. 27 February 2009 http://www. womensenews. org/article. cfm/dyn/aid/2097/. â€Å"Promoting Gender Equality: Frequently Asked Questions on Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting. † n. d. United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA). 27 February 2009 http://www. unfpa. org/gender/practices2. htm. Samaan, Magdy. â€Å"Shoura Council Passes Child Law, Criminalizes FGM. † 12 May 2008. Daily News Egypt. 27 February 2009 http://www. dailystaregypt. com/article. aspx? ArticleID=13659. Turshen, Meredeth. African Women’s Health. Trenton: Africa Word Press, 2000. World Health Organization (WHO). 1999. Female Genital Mutilation Programmes to Date: What Works and What Doesn’t. Geneva, Switzerland: Department of Women’s Health – Health Systems and Community Health. World Health Organization (WHO). Mental Health Aspects of Womens Reproductive Health: A Global Review of the Literature. Geneva: World Health Organization, 2008.

Link Between Oppression And Social Labelling Sociology Essay

Link Between Oppression And Social Labelling Sociology Essay As a member of a minority group this subject is something of interest and has personal relevance to my experiences living in a pre-dominantly white society. The absence of appropriate Asian role models in the media such as television, films, history, newspapers and in positions of credible political and economic influence, stimulated a natural process of personal questioning of identify. The social labels which surround us either positive or negative shape our perceptions of self and influence the kind of decisions we make. If we dont understand the social fabrics of society in which self is developed and do not nurture a genuine inquiry into how oppression functions, we end up living those social labels. Some of these can be harmful and cause us to become disadvantaged even to the point of oppression of ourselves. It could be argued that this is an unlikely phenomena but psychological oppression is a well-researched and uncontested concept amongst academics. I am simply referring to and naming what it really is, internalised self-oppression. This paper will attempt to examine the discourses and ideas which shape and influence our understanding of oppression as well as establishing a link between this and social labelling. Oppression as a concept has a very broad meaning and relates to different forms of minority groups in different ways. In this paper I will explore the relationship of oppression drawing on various forms of resources and information to support a particular perceptive. It should be recognised that oppression is not exclusive to race but impacts on other groups such as women, disability, age, sexual orientation and class with varying degrees of intensity and differences. However, for the purposes of this assignment I will specifically focus on the concept of race. I will present the four key criterias of oppression presented by Ann Cudd in her book Analysing Oppression (Cudd, 2006) and then focus on the effects of social labelling as phenomena. I will present a view that in order to understand oppression w e must also understand the social systems, structures and influences that facilitates internalised oppression. My conclusion will aim to provide some suggestions towards highlighting how to end oppression and limit or reduce its effect on individuals who are exposed to the dynamics of oppression. Defining layers of oppression History literature books document oppression in different ways from religious repression, class differences, poverty and wealth, language and knowledge just to name a few (Kernohan 1998). Oppression is traditionally understood to relate to the loss of freedom, free choice, independence and capabilities due to actions of those in positions of power (Wartenberg 1992). Half a century ago, if asked the question what is oppression, many would refer to slavery or colonialism. In this day and age there is a greater understanding and awareness of oppression. Iris Young a respected author on the subject of power and oppression highlights how oppression has a much broader understanding making reference to systematic and structural phenomena that are not necessary the result of the intentions of a tyrant. Oppression in the structural sense is part of the basic fabric of a society, not a function of a few peoples choice or policies(Young, 1992, p. 176). In this respect oppression can be consider ed to be in the psychological and behavioural patterns of every member of society including those who are well meaning individuals whether they are aware of it or not. Oppression as we once thought of is far more subtle, as Jean Harvey explains civilised oppression involves neither physical violence nor the use of law. Yet these subtle forms are by far the most prevalent in Western industrialised societies (Harvey, 1999, P. 1). Recognising different forms of oppression means decoding cultural and societal norms which do not clearly categorise or has a clear distinct oppressor. We all contribute to oppression in different ways and perpetuate forms of harm consciously or unconsciously, either to ourselves or to others (Harvey, 1999). Ann Cudd helps us to explain this further by outlining four key criterias which are necessary and appropriate in increasing our understanding of oppression: Oppression must involve some sort of physical or psychological harm, though it may not be recognised as harm by the ones who are oppressed (Cudd, 1994, p.25). So harm can be imposed without being self-conscious limiting ones freedom of choice relative to other in ones society (Cudd, 1994, p.25). Oppression is a kind of harm that individual members of group suffer by virtue of their membership in that group. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦harm that comes to persons because they belong to a group that they closely identify with, so that the harm attaches to their very self-image (ibid). Individuals are not oppressed as individuals but due to their membership to a specific group, such as race, gender, disability or sexual orientation. Keith Vaz MP might not be considered as being oppressed although black men in society are. He has the same limitations as other black men who have less power in society and will have obstacles to cross that other white men take for privilege. The third criteria, is what Cudd refers to as the privilege group (Cudd, 1998). She makes the point that an individual who has membership to a group which benefits from the oppression is advantaged by their association and status. However, not every individual member of the group will be intentionally or knowingly benefiting but they gain from the membership to that group. Oppression must involve some kind of coercion or force ((Cudd, 1994). Coercion is the lack of ability to make free choice. Cudd goes on to explain that coercion is not the absence of all choice, but a lack of the right kind of choices, namely, voluntary choices (Cudd, 1994, p. 27). Cudd suggests that this is what explains injustices of oppression. A further dimension My concept of oppression will focus on Ann Cudds coercion criteria with some variation. Not all coercion might be considered immoral as an explanation towards injustices of oppression. There are other forms of oppression, more subtle kinds which equally are not coercive such as psychological oppression. Prilleltensky and Nelson make reference to Sandra Bartky who states To be psychologically oppressed is to be weighed down in your mind; it is to have a harsh dominion exercised over your self-esteem. The psychologically oppressed become their own oppressors; they come to exercise harsh dominion over their own self-esteem. Differently put, psychological oppression can be regarded as the internalisation of intimations of inferiority ((Isaac Prilleltensky, 2002, p. 13). In this respect there is no force or coercion; individuals will have the ability to make free choice in making decisions, so the lack of voluntary choice is not affected. Individuals who are psychologically oppressed become their own persecutors. The options are available to them but they are only likely to make decisions and choices which their culture or community demands of them. There are other forms of elements of oppression at work which are dynamic, fluent and interact, as oppression doesnt occur in isolation but many forces come together in order to hold people in a state of oppression (Frye 2005). Oppression is well documented throughout history and in literature. Particular references are made to slavery of the treatment of African slaves, the holocaust and the suffering and torture of European Jews. The systematic discrimination against sexual minorities including gay and lesbians ((Cudd, 2006). The disproportionate use of stop and search against black minorities being seven times more likely to be stopped by the police compared whites ((Muffler, 2006). The above examples make reference to the way in which physical ill-treatment is used to subjugate particular groups of people. However, the most efficient and effective way a society can propagate oppression is by a system of non-physical means transforming into a process of what we call negative labelling or commonly referred to as stereotyping. There are many studies undertaken which highlight the effects of stereotyping on particular groups. This includes how these groups of individuals self-categorise themselves into positive or negative stereotyping which either way leads to negative and damaging effects. Michael Hogg refers to a study undertaken by Jost and Elsbach suggesting the link between stereotyping and power differentials as a negative force within social relations which results in distortion, control and false awareness of the oppressed groups reality ((Hogg, 2002). The element of control is imbedded into the consciousness of the individuals being stereotyped. Altshuller refers to the following quote by Jost and Banaji those with power can control ideas, beliefs, and stereotypes in the same way they control other social and material resources and can thereby instil a false consciousness in the powerless such that the powerless become complicit in their own disadvantage ((Altshuller, 1999, p. 325). The weak becom e accepting of their position of being oppressed and psychologically become their own oppressors by self-limiting their opportunities and life chances. Cudd makes the following point, it is not that they (the psychologically oppressed) will prefer oppression to justice, or subordination to equality, rather they will prefer the kinds of social roles that tend to subordinate them, make them less able to choose, or give them fewer choices to make (Cudd, 2008, p. 114). There has been varying degrees of research analysing the relationship between oppression and stereotyping which support findings that individuals who are negatively stereotyped adopt the stereotyping. This in turn sets into motion self-defeating beliefs which develops into limiting factors in accessing life opportunities. In a study conducted by Devos and Banaji they refer to how stereotyping leads to a type of phenomenon that results in self-stereotyping ((Banaji, et el, 2005). However, stereotyping distorts the reality of the lived experiences of individuals who are being stereotyped. Sayers suggests that the media influences our perceptions and that these perceptions then influence our behaviour towards stereotyped groups (Sayre, 2009, p. 318). So for example if we see a rebellious young teenage black adolescent, we may perceive him/her as having a violent culture in comparison to a white civilised European culture. Instead of challenging institutional oppression we use blame to shift the focus of responsibility (Cudd, 2006). Stereotyping can be damaging in other ways. According to the theory of stereotype threat ((Laurie A. Rudman, 2008) the existence of such stereotypes means that anything one does or any of the ones features that conform to it make the stereotype more plausible as a self-characterisation in the eyes of others, and perhaps even in ones own eyes (Steele and Aronson, 1995, p. 797). A further dimension to stereotyping is direct situational threat that arises through negative stereotyping. This relates to the risk of being treated or judged in a stereotypical way or even perhaps self-fulfilling the stereotype. Immediate situational threat is another result of the negative stereotypes against a group. That is the threat of the possibility of being judged or treated stereotypically, or even self-fulfilling the stereotype. This stereotype threat, according to Stangor, Can befall anyone with a group identity about which some negative stereotype exists, and for the person to be threatened in this way he need not even believe the stereotype. He need only know that it stands as a hypothesis about him in situations where the stereotype is relevant(Stangor, 2000, p. 370). There are many studies carried out exploring the relationship between stereotype threat and poor intellectual tests (Weiten, 2012). Different people will react differently to situational threat. Individuals will either blame themselves for their lack of achievements or internalise inferiority, both of which leads to lowering their rank and status in society (Aronson, 1995). Internalising the blame leads to individuals not feeling they have the ability or confidence to succeed, therefore they are likely not even to make any attempt. So for example, I have always wanted to paraglide. It might not be in my capabilities, so have never tried and never will. However, it will not affect my life opportunities, impact on my quality of life or leave me in an oppressed social status. Nevertheless, self-blame could cause to decrease and lower quality of life. If self-blame is used for our lack of success on our incapacities, it would make it problematic to identify and challenge institutional op pression. Self-blame is the final ingredient in maintaining oppression. Realigning the balance In order to redress the balance, there are different ways to overcome oppression in culture and attain a more egalitarian society. This requires personal commitment in challenging oppressive structure. It requires re-structuring of established institutions and the thought processes that influences them. It is helpful to remember that simply making policies to encourage change does not help, although policies give some direction reflecting where society is going, it does not simply promote social justice and reduce oppression (OConnor, 2003, p. 20). It is not a far-fetched view, that stereotyping is used to justify all kinds of harms on groups of individuals. Harm causes damage to ones ability. Therefore any harm that violates ones self and their development of human ability is a violation of universal and human rights (Nussbaum, 2001). The impact and effect of negative labelling attacks and destroys his/her sense of self image by violating their experiences. This violation occurs not only physically but through years of training and being subject to negative messages, instilling a false consciousness and it is this which results in oppression. All human beings have a right to live free of physical and emotional violations which results in any form of harm. Each individual has the right to dignity, self-worth, and to maximise their internal potential without the fear of abuse. Through self-stereotyping, if we lack the confidence that we do not have abilities then we are less likely to pursue and develop our capabilities. However, simply having basic human rights is not sufficient to bypass the harm which oppression causes. Challenging cultural dynamics, religious practices and social norms which create the kinds of conditions for oppression to flourish should be confronted through education and providing information enabling individuals to make decisions and choices that do not violate their sense of self. Developing influential role models that advocate and develop a collective identify regardless of their individuality can assist in developing images of credible and honourable representatives. Such individuals would help to counter the negative portrayal of groups which are likely to be exposed to some form of negative labelling. Conclusion The path to ending all forms of oppression is by far not an easy journey. More often than not minority leaders rarely challenge the structures or the system but instead they adapt to increase their own access to power. It is not uncommon that many minority leaders holding positions of influence create an impression of equality of opportunity which is reassuring to the privilege groups. However, this kind of representation could be damaging to the oppressed groups, as it distorts the reality of the oppressed, ignoring the very real problem with cultural oppression. This has the risk of overlooking the conditions and social problems which keeps people in their underprivileged positions. Rather than focusing on readdressing the system, oppressed groups are ridiculed, blamed and stereotyped for their circumstances (Segal, 2009). To overcome the impact of self-stereotyping, simply ending social stereotype is not enough. More needs to be done to increase individuals ability and self-worth, so that every member of society can enjoy their true human rights. Social conditioning starts at a very early age, which defines our identity and the realisation of our ability or the lack of it. If we focus on countering the destructive stereotypes in our communities, then drawing our attention at children when they are young might be a start. This would include improving the quality of education and funding for the schools, but also ensure that funding is distributed equally to avoid creating a culture of differential treatment. Education of adults is another element which would assist in reducing oppression. What is needed here is effective training that not only focuses on the future members of society but also on those individuals who are affected by oppression and stereotype threat currently. In this exists the challenge and the goal at reversing the stereotypes and reconstructing individual capabilities. Re-establishing and re-developing the undermined capabilities is our primary task here. Education which raises the awareness and empower oppressed groups should benefit from public support. There is no doubt that education itself is not just simply a cure to a complex range of dynamics such as oppression but it remains the most firmly established institution towards seeking restoration. An educational method originating and centred from the experiences of the oppressed is what is needed. In his book, Pedagogy of the Oppressed, Paulo Freire gives the following quote: Just as the oppressor, in order to op press, needs a theory of oppressive action, so the oppressed, in order to become free, also need a theory of action. The oppressor elaborates his theory of action without the people, for he stands against them. Nor can the people-as long as they are crushed and oppressed, internalizing the image of the oppressor-construct by themselves the theory of their liberating action. Only in the encounter of the people with the revolutionary leader-in their communion, in their praxis-can this theory be built (Freire, 2007, p. 183). Having leaders with integrity and institutional support are the necessary elements in the ending of oppression. Greater understanding and awareness should be developed into making individuals motivation independent from the negative identities, so that we have a society that is built on strong ambitious people. As part of a broader community, restructuring the capabilities which have been damaged and developing people to an equal threshold of using their potential and capabilities. Encouraging positive perceptions of identity would result in opening up many different possibilities and experiences which is critical in undermining the negative patterns of thoughts and feelings which result in internalising the oppression. Reducing the patterns of oppressive thoughts would be one of the first challenges towards making progress in ending all forms of internal and external oppression.

Analysis of the art of Pablo Palazuelo Essay -- Art Artwork Pablo Pala

Geologic form un-earthed: "Seeing through" the art of Pablo Palazuelo "Science and art are two 'di-fferent' ways of getting to know the world, ways which-from a shared origin-evolved separately. [...] The two 'di-fferent' conceptions as well as the corresponding attitudes and activities reveal their reciprocal 'in/cidence' (the result of their common origin) when they are studied in depth and 'without pre/judice.'" --Pablo Palazuelo, (Vision-Time essay, Reina Sofà ­a, 259) Today science and art reflect two different ways of knowing the world. As a scientist, the geologist gets to know the world empirically, through the visual perception of nature's explicit geologic forms. The artist, on the other hand, gets to know the world through intuition, a prescient feeling that reveals the implicit nature of form itself. The art of contemporary Spanish painter Pablo Palazuelo provides a vehicle through which the geologist can know natural form by experiencing its misterium conjunctionis of complementary "desires", where arbitrary distinctions between science and art disappear. Seeing through Palazuelo's art gives the geologist an insight into the way in which nature constitutes itself, an insight that completely reorients and clarifies the geologist's way of thinking. This fresh new perspective opens the window of conscious perception by awakening the scientist's dormant sensibilities. Geologic form was unearthed before me in this manner several years ago during a visit to the Museo de Arte Abstracto Espaà ±ol in Cuenca, Spain. The Lunariae series of Pablo Palazuelo caught my eye. At first glance I saw a brittle fracture system, not unlike ones I had mapped in a surface outcropping of rock or in an u... ...uries ago were forgotten and foresees those not yet born" (Energy, Matter and Form essay, Soledad Lorenzo, 9). Palazuelo's presentient art informs the vision of the perceptive scientist. The geologic form, unearthed by the geoscientist, informs the images of the artist. In this sense, through their open dialog, the conceptions, attitudes and activities of science and art do indeed reflect their "reciprocal in/cidence." "The image is the experience itself." --Pablo Palazuelo (El cuerpo geà ³metra essay, Theo, 2) Works CiteD: Palazuelo. Museo Nacional Centro de Arte Reina Sofà ­a, Madrid, 1995. Palazuelo. Pinturas, esculturas y gouaches, Galerà ­a Theo, Madrid, 1985. Palazuelo. Galerà ­a Soledad Lorenzo, Madrid, 1997. Palazuelo, Pablo, and Kevin Power. Visià ³n y Geometrà ­a: Una Conversacià ³n con Kevin Power. Granada: Deputacià ³n Provincial de Granada, 1995.

Plagiarism Essay -- Cheating School Education Essays

Plagiarism What is plagiarism? Obviously the word must be of some importance as I know it can greatly change ones future. From what I know, plagiarism can happen by careless mistakes, being uneducated of what plagiarism really means or just on purpose to save time for themselves. Some writers may not know the actual detail of how you give another writer full credit of their work. Another could be that some students are lazy, worried or in a rush to finish a paper and think plagiarizing is the best solution at that time for them. Mainly, I think this would happen in high school and colleges. Students in these areas are so busy which could make the idea plagiarizing a way to save them a little time to worry and finish another project up. I know, for me during High School, I was so busy working and keeping up my grades with trying to have a normal life plus all the pressure I had to face with what I am going to do with my life. With this in mind, I could see how students could feel that plagiarizing could be the best option for them. However, if I had plagiarized through my school work I could have easily ruined my goals for my future. From what I know, my definition of plagiarism would be basically stealing someone elses work. As far as I can remember through all my schooling I have been taught that plagiarizing is wrong. In elementary school, around the time of starting the fourth grade, was the first time I knew the basics about plagiarism. High school though is really the time where I learned about the consequences of plagiarism. While doing my first research paper, the teacher made it clear that if anyone in the class plagiarized you would not only fail the assignment, you would fail the class, the principal would be n... ...ing a smart thing by stealing when actually they are only hurting themselves. In my opinion, Jayson Blairs decision of plagiarizing shows how unqualified he was at his career if he had to become successful by taking credit of another persons work. I thought before writing this paper that I actually understood the basics of plagiarism. As I went further and further into research I found out how wrong I was. When I think of plagiarism I basically thought that it only happens at school and it wasnt that much of an important issue. I was proven otherwise. Anything you think of can be plagiarized. For example, lyrics to a song, quotes from a book, symbols from a product, a research paper, articles from a newspaper, etc What also amazed me was the number of students that have actually admitted to plagiarizing. I do hope that they learn With plagiarism comes consequences.

The Dead Towns Of Kola

Gently stepping upon the gravel of the old roads, the old wind roared from the sea, bringing punishing gusts of fine sand and gravel from the beaches far away. Grass lands surround what was a thriving town full of life, now dead with not a soul around, the land reclaimed by nature, and scared by the permanent skeletons of ancient buildings without a purpose. The old base is still there, with high walls and concrete bunkers laughing menacingly in the face of nature, its large guns frozen in rust, still facing out to sea, waiting to defend against those who never arrived in the ever relentless, raging wind. A shadow moves rapidly in the distance, a small hare speeding through the grass, poking its nose up and sniffing the air, checking the salty breeze for dangers. Startled by a small bird over head, it darts off running against the furious winds, past the old buildings, along the deserted streets. The signs of the old shops glare down onto the street their windows ravaged by cracks and diseased by time, standing in linear patterns like a gallery of despair, long tender branches thudding against them in the ever relentless, raging wind. Gently floating down, a fleck of paint lands on the table inside the abandoned farm house, this large structure once home to the generations of family who lived here, now occupied by the generations of animals left behind. Another gust blows in violently and viciously shaking the antique structure, forcing dust from the beams in the roof, a single shingle stolen from the roof by the ever relentless, raging wind. Walking towards the naval bases of the beach, the sights amaze, the bodies of ships scattered upon the sands, steadily dying in the dismantling salt waves. The boats of the industry left to rot amongst the rocks and the ever relentless, raging wind. Viciously rattling the chains on the gates the wind stops for a while, just enough time for the loud crash of a fishing crane to fall from its boat and fill the air with its resonating boom, this is quickly replaced with the sounds of the ever relentless, raging wind. The great white sands on the beach contrast with the blood red grass of the dunes, their usual green blades poisoned by the red rust of the dying ships in the bay. A small pair of pointed ears pops up protruding from the poisoned plants. The hare has come back this time grazing upon the rust red plants away from the tiny town and the ever relentless, raging wind. Standing tall with the harsh grey fortress, a single flag still flies amongst the torn shreds of others, its blood red colours standing battered from its 20 years of isolation, guarding over its fortress with its single red star, its hammer, its sickle, honouring the united nation that forgot it, still bearing its insignia. Further into the base through the fallen chain gates lies a grounded submarine, half sunken into the asphalt ground, a memorial to those lost in a war forgotten, reclaimed by natures penetrating grass, and tree's blowing with the ancient flag, in the ever relentless raging wind.